The Final Four Periods

The next two periods, four and five, each add another eight elements to the Periodic Table filling the 4s and 4p, and the 5s and 5p shells respectively. But in addition to this, they each also fill a new orbital, the d shell. Each d shell contains ten more electrons and is filled after the s shell. For the fourth period the first two elements, Potassium and Calcium, fill the 4s shell. Then come ten transitional metals filling the 3d shell followed by six elements filling the 4p shell. The fifth period follows the same pattern.

Not all of the elements in the fourth period have biological activity. Potassium (K - 19) and Calcium (Ca - 20) are essential to life. Of the ten transitional metals, most are considered trace elements or minerals (as consumed naturally) with the exception of Iron (Fe - 26) which is essential for Oxygen transport and cellular respiration. The remaining six elements are also mostly biologically active to a small degree with the exception of Arsenic, which is extremely toxic, and Krypton which is an un-reactive Noble Gas.

In the fifth period most of the elements are only minimally biologically active with the exception of Iodine (I - 53). Several are considered trace elements which only appear to be needed when completely missing from the diet as when someone is feed intravenously with Total Parenteral Nutrition.

The sixth period contains most of the remaining natural elements. It also includes the inner transitional metals which have electrons filling the f shell. This shell contains 14 electrons. The seventh period is similar except that most of the elements are synthetic, existing only for extremely short half lives when generated by nuclear reactors or particle accelerators.

This completes the Periodic Table up to element 118, the highest discovered element, Ununoctium, a Group 18 element (Noble Gases). Only 3 to 4 atoms of this element have ever been produced so it is not known if it is a gas or has properties like those of the other Group 18 Noble Gases.

In the next series of articles I will cover some of the more well known elements in periods 4 through 7 as well as some interesting facts about the lesser known ones before going back to period 2 and looking at Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen and Hydrogen (period 1).

The Quiet Gas

Finally we come to the last element in the third Period, Argon (Ar - 18). It has a full 3p electron shell so it is very stable. Argon is a Noble Gas and as such does not significantly react with other elements. It has no known stable compounds at room temperature, nor does it form diatomic molecules with itself. The name Argon comes from the Greek and means "the inactive one". It was the first Noble Gas to be discovered, being isolated from the air in 1894.



Argon is the third most common gas in the atmosphere, being more common than Carbon Dioxide. It is present primarily as the isotope Ar-40 and comes from the decay of radioactive Potassium-40 (K-20) which has a half life of over 1 billion years. Potassium-Argon dating can be used to date very old rocks.

It is used primarily as an inert shielding gas in high temperature industrial processes. It produces a distinctive blue-green light and is used in some fluorescent light applications. Being so readily available in the atmosphere, it is relatively cheap and is used where an inert gas is needed. It has a low thermal conductivity so is also used to reduce heat transfer, as in dual pane windows where it is used to fill the space between the panes.

Argon, being highly inert, is used as a preservative. It is used to replace air in a number of applications such as aerosol cans for varnish and paint, sealed bottles containing high grade chemicals or pharmaceuticals, and wine barrels. Since 2001 it has replaced Helium as the gas used by the National Archives to retard decomposition of such important national documents as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. Being a larger atom, it does not leak as quickly as Helium from the sealed display cases.

Argon is also used to humanely euthanize poultry as it can replace the Oxygen in their systems causing suffocation and, being more inert than the reactive Oxygen it replaces, preserve the meat. In high concentrations it stays low to the ground since it is heavier than the other elements in the air allowing the chickens to breathe it in easily. For such an inert element Argon has quite a number of unique uses.

Accidental Asteroid?

Going back to fire and brimstone and the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah, some think that since an asteroid (see Fire and Brimstone, July 2, 2011) came in and dropped shrapnel on Sodom that it was not an act of God. By science it can be determined when Sodom was destroyed and when the asteroid hit and its trajectory. These two events can be seen to have occurred at near the same time, close enough to be tied together. Does this make it a coincidence?

If you believe Genesis 1:1 then you have to believe that an asteroid entering the Earth's atmosphere can easily be controlled by the Creator. God is in control and intervenes into our lives to give us direction and to shape our destiny. We can move with His plan for us or work against it. Paul says "all things work together for good to those who love God (Romans 8:28a NKJV)." Abraham believed and Lot was a good man in a bad place so God touched the Universe to destroy a town but held it back until the nephew of a patriarch could be lifted out with a move of His hand.

Of Rain Drops and Redwoods

Moving off topic from the elements we have been discussing to a different set of "elements", namely the rain, some of the fullness of Creation can be seen in the events of my family's Independence Day weekend. This past weekend half of our composite family went to Sequoia National Park to escape the Inland Empire triple digit heat. Spending four days at Hume Lake with 10 adults and 11 kids can be exciting to say the least. But manifest in the visit was the presence of God in nature.

Natural beauty is all around you when traveling into the mountains. Green forests, towering peaks and peaceful lakes bring an appreciation for the handiwork of the Creator. The first day the weather was hot and in the low 90's. It seemed that the heat had followed us. Skies were clear with no sign of rain. Each of the next two days it did get cooler but still in the 80's during the day with not even a hint of rain but with some very light cloud cover.

On the third day, Independence Day, the clouds started to move in and by the afternoon there was significant coverage. While riding the zip line, thunder could be heard and the rain started. First a drizzle and then a shower. In a matter of minutes it was gone. The temperature had dropped into the low 70's with the overcast skies but it was still warm and the smell of musty socks filled the air as the rain was just enough to turn the dust into mud.

As quickly as the clouds had moved in, they moved out again and the sky cleared. The brief shower showed how the weather can change almost instantly and you need to be prepared. Things are always changing when you are out in God's creation, away from the man-made controlled environments of home and office, out where you have only the treetops to protect you.

The next day the clouds were moving in from the early morning, stretching over the mountain top as we enjoyed a breakfast at Inspiration Point. Even with this, rain was not expected and certainly not in the way it descended on us.
Leaving the lake we traveled into the Valley of the Giants. These massive Sequoia trees are absolutely awe inspiring to me. They truly show the magnificence of God. Hundreds of feet tall, Over one hundred feet in circumference and thousands of years old, they stand as guardians of the forest. They are truly one of God's finest. I could easily spend hours enjoying them, but not today.

Down in the middle of the forest, with all the little grand-kids, it started to rain. First a small drizzle but quickly turning into raindrops the size of peanuts. With just the right combination of weather, cold air up high and updrafts to keep the droplets suspended, the water would form into larger and larger drops until the weight was too much for the air to hold aloft. We had to grab the kids and run for what little cover we could find.

The temperature, in the low 70's just minutes ago, now plunged into the high 40's. Higher up the temperature dropped even further until the raindrops, being held up by the wind, started to freeze and form into hailstones the size of peas. The rain intensity increased significantly and the hail started to fall until the ground was covered white. Running for cover, we watched as God replenished the thirsty ground for His Giants and let us know He was watching over them. He put on a show for us with one of His simplest but most amazing compounds, Water.

Fire and Brimstone

"DEATH COMES UNEXPECTEDLY" was the opening line of Reverend Ford's sermon, played by Karl Malden, in the movie "Pollyanna". He went on to harangue the congregation with visions of hell fire and the wrath of God for their sins and damning behaviors. This was a classic example of "fire and brimstone" preaching. The reverend pours out his wrath on the people for not following God's commandments. God did pour forth fire and brimstone on Sodom and Gomorrah for their evil deeds. Gen 19:24 "Then the LORD rained brimstone and fire on Sodom and Gomorrah, from the LORD out of the heavens. (NKJV)" This was not His wrath but His judgment on a people whom He had given many an opportunity to change their ways.

Could it be that the real fire and brimstone showered on Sodom were none other than the next two elements in the Periodic Table, Phosphorus and Sulfur?



Brimstone is actually another name for Sulfur used by the Alchemists of old, before it was known to be an element. It was so named as it was found around the "brim" of volcanoes. It had its own symbol, a triangle which was the symbol of fire and a cross, and was considered the omnipresent spirit of life.


Sulfur, a solid, is in the same group as Oxygen. It reacts similar to Oxygen as well but due to its larger mass, can inhibit bonding when linked with hydrogen. One example is Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) which is a gas whereas water (H2O) is a liquid due to the stronger hydrogen bonds between the water molecules.

Sulfur is flammable and when burned produces Sulfur Dioxide which has a strong suffocating smell. It can be found as a pure element naturally, with 30 known allotropes (pure forms of the same element that differ in physical structure), existing as sulfur molecules with several sulfur atoms connected in a ring. The most common form contains 8 atoms of sulfur, with other rings containing 6 or 7 atoms. Rings up to 18 atoms have been synthesized.

Sulfur is essential for life and is found in many important biological compounds. It is present in all proteins being found in the amino acids methionine and cysteine. Many Sulfur containing compounds are odoriferous. One of the most widely known is Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S) which has a very characteristic "rotten egg" smell. It is a very toxic, flammable gas.

Another unusual Sulfur compound is Dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). It is a very strong solvent, able to dissolve both polar and non-polar compounds. It also is readily absorbed through the skin and transfers the taste of the dissolved substance to the tongue. By itself DSMO imparts a garlic like taste when applied to the skin.

So it is very likely that the real brimstone of the Bible was actually sulfur raining down from heaven, possibly from volcanic activity or a meteor shower. What about the "fire"?

There is evidence that the "fire and brimstone" of Sodom and Gomorrah could have come from an asteroid. Some scientists have found evidence from an ancient cuneiform tablet with writings describing an asteroid that may have struck the Earth in 3123 BC, passing close to the location of Sodom and finally coming to rest in what is now present day Austria. Such an impact could have produced the smoke, flames and "brimstone". Phosphorus compounds can exist on an asteroid and potentially burn as the asteroid enters the atmosphere.

So it is not clear that Phosphorus was the "fire" but it is very flammable nonetheless. It forms a tetrahedron molecule with four atoms (white Phosphorus) that then links to other tetrahedron molecules by breaking one internal bond and joining to the next molecule. This chain like structure is called red phosphorus. White Phosphorus is the most reactive and least stable form of Phosphorus. White Phosphorus burns very hot and produces a brilliant white light.
Phosphorus is in the same group as Nitrogen. It is a solid, however, and more reactive than Nitrogen in general. It also glows in the dark due to a chemical reaction with Oxygen on the surface of pure phosphorus that produces intermediary chemicals that emit light.

Phosphorus is relatively rare on Earth and there is speculation that some of the Phosphorus found has come from meteors impacting the Earth. Phosphorus is very essential to life. It is found in DNA, RNA, ATP and the phospholipids that form cell membranes. It is used as a fertilizer, an additive to detergents and is found in bones and teeth.